2183 brokerage roles, and power asymmetries within global commodity systems (Aguinaga,2024). Although network-based approaches have been increasingly applied in economic history and international trade, the use of Social Network Analysis (SNA) to examine copper concentrate trade—particularly in a Latin American context—remains limited. This gap is especially relevant for LAC, a region that combines global importance in copper supply with persistent weaknesses in regional integration. Trade relations in resource-intensive sectors are predominantly organized through global trade structures rather than intra-regional linkages, constraining the formation of cohesive regional trade communities. As a result, conventional indicators struggle to capture whether LAC exporters function primarily as global anchors, intermediaries, or peripheral actors within the evolving organization of copper concentrate markets. This structural concentration raises questions regarding resilience, strategic coordination, and long-term positioning of Latin American exporters in a geopolitically evolving mineral market. This study analyzes the structural organization of the global copper concentrate trade network between 2010 and 2024, with particular attention to LAC’s position within evolving global trade communities. By applying a longitudinal Social Network Analysis framework, the research examines how key exporters are embedded in global trade structures, distinguishing between scale-driven anchors, brokerage actors, and structurally autonomous participants. Specifically, the analysis seeks to determine whether LAC exporters operate as a cohesive regional bloc or as nationally differentiated actors integrated into demand-driven global networks. It further assesses how shifts in modularity and community composition reflect changing patterns of trade centralization and global embedding. Through this structural perspective, the paper provides system-level evidence that complements conventional trade indicators and contributes to ongoing discussions on critical minerals governance and the energy transition. 2. DATA AND METHODOLOGY This research introduces a data-driven perspective by applying Social Network Analysis (SNA) to map the global copper concentrate trade network over the period 2010–2024, using international trade data from UN Comtrade and the BACI database. The analysis focuses on copper ores and concentrates classified under HS code 2603. Trade values are expressed in current U.S. dollars. For each year, only countries with at least one active trade relationship are included, ensuring that network indicators reflect effective participation in international trade. For each year in the period of analysis, a directed and weighted trade network is constructed. Countries are represented as nodes, and export flows of copper concentrates are represented as directed edges from exporter to importer, with edge weights corresponding to export values (Lee et al., 2026). This representation follows standard approaches in complex network analysis, where extensive systems are modeled as networks composed of vertices and edges representing relationships among elements (Federico et al., 2023). Separate annual networks are generated to preserve temporal dynamics and avoid aggregation bias. The network analysis applies standard SNA metrics to characterize both regional and country-level structural roles. Out-degree and weighted out-degree centrality capture export connectivity and intensity. Betweenness centrality identifies countries that act as intermediaries or bridges within the trade network, capturing influence beyond export volumes. In addition to weighted out-degree (export strength), total weighted degree (node strength, defined as the sum of incoming and outgoing trade flows) is used when assessing the structural weight of modular communities in the network. This approach aligns with the literature on international trade networks, which often exhibit core–periphery structures where a limited number of central nodes concentrate flows while peripheral actors remain weakly interconnected (Newman, 2003).
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