2275 3. ECOLOGICAL FINDINGS FROM THE CASE STUDIES The integrated analysis of Peru’s regulatory framework, ecosystem guides, operational experience and alignment with international standards in the mining sector shows substantial progress, but also structural gaps that still limit the consistency and verifiability of biodiversity offsets. Overall, the findings confirm that Peru has consolidated a more robust regulatory base—particularly after publication of the SEIA Offsetting Guide (MINAM, 2024)—yet challenges remain related to methodological standardization, data availability and quality, and adaptation of criteria in ecosystems with less regulatory development, especially aquatic ones. First, the mitigation hierarchy is applied more rigorously in EIAs, particularly in mining projects with detailed baselines. Even so, variability is observed in how significant residual impacts are defined and documented, as also noted in the international literature, which calls for clearer, more transparent and verifiable criteria (Bull et al., 2013; Maron et al., 2018). This heterogeneity weakens the comparability of ecological equivalence calculations and affects the sizing of offset measures. Second, while MINAM’s ecosystem guides provide indicators and methodologies for high-Andean ecosystems (including wetlands), relict forests, yunga, dry forest, humid forest and páramo, the study confirms persistent gaps in aquatic and riparian ecosystems. The lack of specific guidance forces SENACE and ANA to adapt criteria originally designed for terrestrial ecosystems, resulting in case-by-case assessments and increasing technical and administrative uncertainty; this gap has also been documented in the specialized literature (Acreman & Holden, 2013; Mitsch & Gosselink, 2015). A growing alignment of the Peruvian system with international standards such as IFC PS6, BBOP and CSBI is also observed, especially on additionality, traceability and equivalence. Nevertheless, challenges remain related to independent verification and the systematic use of standardized loss/gain metrics, as highlighted by recent global assessments (IUCN, 2023; SBTN, 2024). At the operational level, the reviewed cases suggest that mining projects with high-resolution biological information are better positioned to propose coherent and well-supported offsets. International literature emphasizes that offset effectiveness critically depends on data resolution, temporal consistency and demonstration of ecological equivalence (Bull et al., 2013; Gardner et al., 2013). However, not all projects have comparable information, creating asymmetries in the technical quality of proposed plans. In summary, the cross-cutting findings show the need to strengthen: § specific and verifiable criteria for aquatic ecosystems, § standardization of ecological equivalence methodologies, § alignment with emerging frameworks such as Nature Positive and SBTN, § incorporation of independent verification mechanisms, § and clarity regarding tenure, permanence assumptions and reversal risks. Overall, Peru is at a strategic point to consolidate a robust offsetting system that is traceable and internationally comparable, provided it continues to advance in standardization, transparency and adoption of evidence-based global frameworks. 3.1 Key Thematic Findings: 3.1.1 Hydrology determines wetland functionality Scientific evidence shows that hydrological restoration is the most critical factor for recovering ecosystem functions such as storage, flow regulation and support for hydrophilic plant communities. Designing offsets without this component strongly reduces their effectiveness and verifiability, consistent
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