2362 5. DISCUSSION The results show that, unlike in aviation or military domains—where automation often provides structured, multimodal cues—operators in automated mining environments build situation awareness through a hybrid, sometimes inconsistent combination of system alerts and human communication. The study demonstrates that reliance on visual alarms, the absence of auditory cues such as loader sounds or vibrations, and variable handover quality create vulnerabilities that are not widely discussed in previous mining research, which has largely emphasised productivity or system performance rather than human-system interaction. Compared with earlier studies in domains where autonomous operations have been implemented, automation is reported to reduce mental workload. However, the results of this research indicate that mining operators experience variable workload, with some reporting increased cognitive demand during prolonged monitoring in the control room. This differs from research in other domains, where it is reported that workload often stabilises as operators adapt to higher levels of automation. In contrast to established findings showing that automation can erode team communication, this study reveals an additional mining-specific effect: physical and organisational separation between underground crews and control-room operators, contributing to isolation, reduced peer communication, and weakened supervisory contact. These patterns have not been extensively documented in the mining sector. The study also highlights the varying perceptions of mental workload among operators, particularly the cognitive demands associated with continuous monitoring in the control room. Additionally, it uncovers emerging social and organisational challenges, such as reduced communication, operator isolation, and weakened relationships between automation operators and underground crews. These changes have direct implications for safe teamwork and overall well-being. Overall, the results extend previous work in this area by providing empirical evidence from a hazardous, real-world mining environment showing how automation reshapes situation awareness, mental workload, communication patterns, and operational reliability. The findings highlight human-system issues unique to mining—such as infrastructure limitations (e.g., Wi-Fi dropouts) and inconsistent handovers— offering new insights into how automation affects health, safety, and well-being in practice. By unpacking these human factors challenges, the paper provides practical insights to this conference for designing safer automation workflows, enhancing communication structures, and supporting workers’ cognitive and social needs in modern mining operations. 6. CONCLUSION This study provides new insights into how automation influences situation awareness, communication, and mental workload in mining operations. The results show that operators develop their situation awareness through a hybrid process that integrates system-generated cues with human communication, but inconsistencies in handovers, limited sensory feedback, and infrastructure limitations— such as Wi-Fi dropouts—create vulnerabilities that can compromise safe performance. Mental workload perceptions varied among operators, highlighting that automation does not uniformly reduce cognitive demand and may increase monitoring fatigue in control-room environments. Automation also reshapes communication patterns, contributing to operator isolation and reduced interaction with underground crews and supervisors. Overall, these findings demonstrate that the transition to automated mining introduces not only technical changes but also significant human and organisational challenges. Addressing these challenges—by improving system reliability, strengthening communication practices, and supporting operators’ cognitive and social needs—is essential to ensure safe, healthy, and effective work in increasingly
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