824 1. INTRODUCTION Water scarcity is widely recognised as one of the most pressing environmental and socio-economic challenges worldwide, with especially severe impacts in arid and semi-arid regions. These territories are characterised by low average annual precipitation, high interannual variability, and strong sensitivity to climate change, resulting in structurally limited and uncertain water availability (Greve et al., 2018; Kurian, 2017). Over recent decades, sustained growth in water demand driven by population increase, urbanisation, and the expansion of water-intensive economic activities has exacerbated these constraints, transforming water scarcity into a critical limitation for regional development. Importantly, water scarcity is not solely a physical or climatic phenomenon, but the outcome of complex socio-hydrological processes shaped by governance arrangements, regulatory frameworks, and infrastructure investment decisions (Frontuto et al. 2025). In arid regions, prolonged over-extraction of groundwater, degradation of ecosystems associated with endorheic basins and salt flats, and increasing competition among productive, urban, and ecological water uses have intensified water insecurity and territorial conflicts (Arenas-Collao et al., 2024). Traditional responses to scarcity have largely relied on supply-side solutions, such as new abstractions, reservoirs, or inter-basin transfers. However, these approaches have shown significant environmental and social limitations when implemented through fragmented, sector-specific planning processes (Gleick, 2003). Recent literature therefore argues for integrated and long-term water planning approaches that explicitly recognise the interdependencies between natural systems, infrastructure networks, and social dynamics, particularly in arid territories subject to intensive resource extraction (Pagliero et al., 2024). Large-scale mining is a water-intensive industrial activity, particularly during the processing of metallic and non-metallic minerals. Paradoxically, many of the world’s most important mining districts are located in arid and hyper-arid regions, where natural water availability is extremely limited. Empirical evidence shows that, in sparsely populated arid basins, the introduction of large mining projects can increase regional water demand, in some cases exceeding sustainable ecological flows several times over (ArenasCollao et al., 2024; Aitken et al., 2016; Odell et al., 2021). In response, the mining industry has progressively improved water management practices by promoting more efficient water use, adopting alternative sources such as seawater desalination, increasing water recovery and recycling, and implementing strategies to reduce freshwater abstraction while addressing environmental and regulatory requirements (Cacciuttolo and Valenzuela, 2022). Moreover, mining operations require a continuous and reliable water supply throughout the entire life cycle of a project. This operational requirement makes water demand relatively inflexible and increases exposure to climatic variability and hydrological uncertainty. While water planning in mining increasingly incorporates environmental and regulatory considerations, it has traditionally been conducted primarily at the individual project level. This project-centred approach may limit the ability to fully capture cumulative impacts and dynamic interactions among multiple operations and other water users within the same basin or region, highlighting opportunities to strengthen integrated and basin-scale water management strategies (Arenas-Collao et al., 2024). The social and environmental impacts associated with mining-related water use are extensively documented and constitute a source of conflict in arid regions. From an environmental perspective, intensive water extraction has been linked to ecosystem degradation, biodiversity loss, and disruption of critical ecosystem services, particularly in fragile environments such as salt flats, wetlands, and high-altitude basins (Mangani et al., 2025; Arenas-Collao et al., 2024). From a social perspective, perceptions of disparities in water allocation and transparency regarding water rights and consumption data have contributed to challenges in building and maintaining confidence and effective engagement between mining companies, local communities, and public authorities. Research shows that even when water use complies with existing legal frameworks, significant gaps often remain between what is legally authorised and what is socially acceptable, especially in territories where water holds cultural, spiritual, and ecological significance beyond its economic value (Ulloa et al., 2022; Damonte et al., 2021). Participatory mechanisms and the integration of social concerns into water planning processes present opportunities for further enhancement, particularly through earlier and more systematic incorporation, to support mining projects in securing and maintaining a social license to operate. Consequently, a growing body of literature highlights the need for water governance approaches that
RkJQdWJsaXNoZXIy MTM0Mzk2