82 restored. 5. CASE STUDY: GEOTECHNICAL MONITORING OF A MAJOR MINING OPERATION IN PERU The proposed framework was validated through implementation at a major mining operation in Peru, encompassing the continuous monitoring of diverse critical infrastructure over a three-year period (2022–2025). 5.1. Instrumentation and Data Sources The platform integrates data from the following geotechnical instrumentation and monitoring technologies deployed across the operation: Table 4. Geotechnical instrumentation integrated into the platform. Instrument Category Specific Instruments Monitored Parameters Data Acquisition Mode Pore-water pressure Vibrating-wire piezometers, standpipe piezometers, Casagrande piezometers Pore-water pressure (kPa), phreatic surface position Automated (data logger) + manual readings Subsurface displacement In-place inclinometers (IPI), portable inclinometer Lateral displacement (mm), displacement rate (mm/day), cumulative deflection profiles Automated (realtime) + manual readings Surface displacement Robotic and portable total stations (prisms) 3D displacement vectors (mm), velocity (mm/day) Automated (cyclic readings, 1–4 hr intervals) + manual readings Tunnel Deformation Multi-point borehole extensometers, Tunnel Profile Monitoring (TPM), Laser Distance Meter (LDM), Tape extensometer convergence monitoring Axial deformation (mm), crack aperture (mm), angular rotation (°), surface deformation (mm) Automated + manual readings Remote sensing Satellite InSAR (PSInSAR, DInSAR) Line-of-sight, East - West and Vertical displacement (mm), velocity (mm/yr), deformation time series Periodic (6–12 day revisit for satellite) Environmental / Hydrology Rain gauges, flow meters Precipitation (mm), flow rate (l/s) Automated (realtime) Vibration / Seismic Accelerometers, geophones, blast vibration monitors Peak particle velocity (mm/s), peak ground acceleration (g), frequency content (Hz) Event-triggered Field inspections Tablet-based digital forms, photographic records Visual condition assessment, crack mapping, seepage observations Manual (periodic inspections) Data acquisition from automated instruments is performed by field data loggers that collect readings at intervals ranging from 10 minutes for critical piezometers in TSF embankments to 6 hours for settlement plates in stable areas. Data loggers transmit to LoRaWAN gateways deployed across the mine site, which forward data via MQTT over TLS to the cloud-hosted platform. Manual readings—including portable
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