863 This study demonstrates modelling-based feasibility and comparative techno-economic potential but does not yet include pilot-scale validation. Future work should focus on pilot demonstrations, dynamic system modelling, and integration with real mine geometries and operational constraints. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This study was conducted as part of the GrEnMine research project (Project No 101157790), cofunded by the European Union (Research Fund for Coal and Steel). The views and opinions expressed are solely those of the authors only and do not necessarily reflect those of the European Union or the European Research Executive Agency. Neither the European Union nor the granting authority can be held responsible for them. REFERENCES Bajda, M., & Hardygóra, M. (2021). Analysis of the influence of the type of belt on the energy consumption of transport processes in a belt conveyor. Energies, 14(19), 6180. Cai, K., Han, Y., Xia, R., Wu, J., Wang, J., & Lund, P. D. (2024). Gravity energy storage: A review on system types, techno-economic assessment and integration with renewable energy. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Energy and Environment, 13(6), e543. Chelopo, D., & Gupta, K. (2025). Exploring the Economic Hypothetical for Downhill Belt Conveyors Equipped with Three-Phase Active Front-End Load Converters. Technologies, 13(5), 185. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO). (2024, December 5). GenCost 2024–25: Consultation draft report (Report). Ember. (2025, December 11). How cheap is battery storage? European Commission. (2024). Energy storage. Retrieved January 18, 2026, from https://energy.ec.europa.eu/topics/research-and-technology/energy-storage_en Galetakis, M., Biotakis, G., Deligiorgis, V., & Varouchakis, E. (2023). Transforming decommissioned mines to a gravity energy storage system. Materials Proceedings, 15(1), 14. Hunt, J. D., Zakeri, B., Jurasz, J., Wada, Y., Krey, V., & Riahi, K. (2025). The power of sand: Can solid gravity close the energy storage gap? Journal of Energy Storage, 125, 116839. International Energy Agency (IEA). (2024). World Energy Outlook 2024. https://www.iea.org/reports/worldenergy-outlook-2024 Jennings, A. (2020). Conveyor energy storage: A battery and pumped hydro alternative. POWER Magazine. Kawalec, W., & Król, R. (2021). Generating of electric energy by a declined overburden conveyor in a continuous surface mine. Energies, 14(13), 4030. Kawalec, W., Król, R., & Suchorab, N. (2020). Regenerative belt conveyor versus haul truck-based transport: Polish open-pit mines facing sustainable development challenges. Sustainability, 12(21), 9215. Kulinowski, P., Kasza, P., & Zarzycki, J. (2021). Influence of design parameters of idler bearing units on the energy consumption of a belt conveyor. Sustainability, 13(1), 437. Lazard. (2025, June). Lazard’s Levelized Cost of Energy+ (LCOE+) (Version 18.0) (Report). Liu, F., Yang, K., Yang, T., Gao, Y., Li, J., Liu, Q., & Fu, Q. (2022). Pumped storage hydropower in an abandoned open-pit coal mine: Slope stability analysis under different water levels. Frontiers in Earth Science, 10, 941119. Mathaba, T., & Xia, X. (2017). Optimal and energy efficient operation of conveyor belt systems with downhill conveyors. Energy Efficiency, 10(2), 405–417.
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