11 12 governance mechanisms. Basin-level water supply augmentation and flow regulation In many mining regions, desalination is not viable due to distance from the coast or high conveyance costs, and domestic wastewater reuse may be limited by the absence of large nearby urban centers. The literature therefore highlights the importance of basin-level supply augmentation and flow regulation through multi-purpose infrastructure that increases reliability across users (ICMM–IFC, 2017). Reservoirs, managed aquifer recharge, seasonal storage, and regulated transfers can enhance dry-season availability and reduce interannual variability, generating shared benefits for agriculture, communities, and ecosystems. Even when a mining operation secures its supply through alternative sources, contributing to basin-wide reliability can strengthen legitimacy, reduce conflict risk, and support long-term project viability (ICMM–IFC, 2017; Tapsuwan et al., 2022). Nature-Based Solutions (NbS) complement grey infrastructure by improving hydrological performance through infiltration, seasonal storage, and baseflow enhancement rather than creating new water volumes. High-Andean wetlands (bofedales), terraces, and infiltration systems are often identified as socially accepted, relatively low-CAPEX measures with regulatory benefits (Ross et al., 2023). However, NbS remain limited in scale, partly due to insufficient valuation frameworks that capture their incremental supply and risk-reduction benefits. Strengthening economic appraisal methodologies is therefore essential to enable scaling and integration into basin-level planning. In addition, climate variability reinforces the need for integrated basin-scale planning and life-cycle water system design, as extreme events can exceed historical assumptions and create long-term liabilities if hydrological dynamics are not adequately managed during operations and closure (Kennedy, 2025). Interviews indicate that basin-level reliability is a strategic priority in water-constrained mining regions where desalination or urban reuse are not feasible. Even with high recirculation rates, structural make-up water requirements persist, making shared storage, managed recharge, and selected Nature-Based Solutions — particularly high-Andean wetland restoration and infiltration systems — critical for operational continuity and social acceptance (Quiroz, personal communication, 2025). Governance and social participation. Effective water governance in mining regions is shaped not only by hydrological conditions but also by the quality of institutional coordination and stakeholder engagement. The literature shows that water insecurity often emerges from fragmented governance structures, limited cross-sector planning, and misaligned priorities among public authorities, productive sectors, and local communities (Salmoral et al., 2020). Even in basins with relatively strong
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