and surface vessels—rather than by increasing the size or seabed footprint of individual systems. This structure allows gradual scaling aligned with operational experience, monitoring results, and regulatory oversight. 7. GOVERNANCE, POLICY, AND SOCIAL DIMENSIONS 7.1 Jurisdiction and Regulatory Frameworks Deep-sea mineral activities fall under different regulatory systems depending on location—UNCLOS and the International Seabed Authority in international waters, and national laws within exclusive economic zones. 7.2 State Sponsorship and Oversight International seabed area activities must be sponsored by a State Party to UNCLOS, making that government responsible for the operation. Within national jurisdictions, governments oversee activities through domestic permitting and environmental review processes. 7.3 Transparency and Public Confidence Monitoring, modeling, and reporting support regulatory oversight and independent review. The Mining 2.0 framework builds data generation and public disclosure directly into its operations to strengthen transparency and public trust. 8. INTEGRATED SYSTEM PERSPECTIVE Deep-sea operations occur under extreme pressure and depend on autonomous systems. Mining 2.0 responds by designing more intelligent systems rather than simply scaling up equipment. By integrating collection, transport, environmental protection, and material handling into a single, connected system, trade-offs become clearer, and operations are more predictable. 9. DISCUSSION: DRIVING A SHIFT IN HOW MINERAL SUPPLY SCALES The Mining 2.0 framework takes a different approach to expanding mineral supply by rethinking the design of deep sea collection systems. Instead of relying on a single large, continuous system to collect and lift material to the surface, it employs multiple autonomous underwater robots operating in parallel. Each robot collects nodules and brings them directly to a surface vessel. This setup enables continuous collection without riser pipes, large pumps, or permanent vertical transport infrastructure, and scales by adding more robots. Spreading the collection activity across many smaller units keeps it controlled and predictable. It also facilitates gradual scaling, enabling operators to monitor impacts, learn from early deployments, and work with regulators as the system grows. Mining 2.0 shows that deep sea mineral supply can scale through replication and smart system design. This new system design establishes a more flexible and resilient criticalmineral supply.
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