with historical operational data; and (3) a results validation loop that confirms findings are consistent with operational knowledge before final recommendations are issued. 3.2.System Decomposition into Simulable Subsystems A large-scale underground mining operation is decomposed, for simulation purposes, into three main subsystems. The Production Level (PL) encompasses the extraction of ore from the drawpoints to the dump stations, with LHD equipment as the primary resource. The Haulage Level (HL) comprises the transport of extracted ore using low-profile trucks through the underground road network. The Material Handling System (MHS) constitutes the transport, comminution, and storage chain from the transfer points to the surface stockpile. The productivity of each subsystem is determined by the availability of its equipment, its cycle times, and its capacity to absorb variability generated upstream. Figure 2 illustrates the integrated architecture of the three subsystems, their main components, and the key performance indicators of each. Figure 2 - Integrated discrete-event simulation framework architecture. Three interdependent subsystems — Production Level (PL), Haulage Level (HL), and Material Handling System (MHS) — are coupled through ore flow interfaces. Each subsystem can be modelled explicitly or implicitly depending on study objectives. Dashed boxes indicate key performance indicators delivered by each subsystem model.
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