continued export growth, indicating consolidation of trade routes around major demand hubs. Clustering coefficients remain persistently low, suggesting that Chile’s trade relationships are globally oriented rather than regionally dense. Community detection consistently places Chile within dominant global communities rather than within a LAC-centered cluster. As noted in the literature, Chile’s copper governance plays a strategic role in global supply security and the energy transition (Biancardi et al., 2025), reinforcing its structural relevance beyond the regional scale. 3.2.2 Peru Peru occupies a structurally distinctive position characterized by sustained brokerage rather than pure export dominance. Across 2010–2024, Peru combines strong export connectivity with consistently high betweenness centrality, confirming its intermediary role within the global network. Betweenness peaks in 2015, reflecting Peru’s capacity to connect otherwise weakly linked trade segments. This brokerage role implies structural influence that extends beyond export volumes alone. Following the COVID-19 shock, Peru’s betweenness declines (Aguinaga, 2024), reflecting greater concentration of global trade flows and reduced intermediation opportunities. Although partial recovery occurs after 2022, structural influence remains below pre-pandemic levels. Clustering coefficients remain low, confirming global rather than regional embedding. Community detection frequently shows co-membership with Chile and Mexico, yet these communities are led by extra-regional demand hubs. Peru’s relevance therefore stems from brokerage within global value chains rather than regional integration. 3.2.3 Mexico Mexico exhibits a selective and volatile position within the network. Export volumes are modest relative to Chile and Peru, and connectivity fluctuates over time. Betweenness shows episodic peaks, particularly in the early 2010s, indicating temporary brokerage during phases of network reorganization. This volatility aligns with Mexico’s broader trade structure. While South American exporters deepened trade with China, Mexico remained structurally anchored to the United States in earlier years, generating divergent integration patterns (Wainer, 2023). This anchoring limits sustained participation in consolidated global trade communities for copper concentrates. Community detection confirms intermittent co-membership with Chile and Peru but no stable structural alignment. Mexico’s position remains contingent on external demand conditions 36
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