structural asymmetries that constrain the consolidation of cohesive regional trade architectures (Parias et al., 2024). The network structure mirrors these structural realities: convergence among exporters occurs in response to global demand dynamics rather than through regionally coordinated strategies. From a governance perspective, the results suggest that strategic mineral policy in LAC cannot rely solely on assumptions of regional cohesion. Instead, structural evidence highlights differentiated national trajectories within globally embedded systems. Effective policy coordination—particularly in the context of energy transition and critical mineral security—requires engagement beyond purely regional frameworks and must consider the globalized and consolidated nature of trade communities (Lebdioui, 2022). Finally, limitations should be acknowledged. The analysis relies on reported bilateral trade flows and does not model contractual structures, logistics, or pricing mechanisms. Furthermore, community detection captures relational intensity but does not imply formal institutional alignment. Nevertheless, the methodology is transferable across mineral markets and provides a scalable framework for identifying structurally critical exporters, evaluating exposure to global demand hubs, and informing strategic trade coordination. 5. CONCLUSION The findings point to a consistent structural pattern in the copper concentrate trade network. LAC’s relevance is not expressed through the formation of a stable regional trade bloc, but through differentiated national positioning within globally structured communities. While co-membership among Chile, Peru, and Mexico increases after 2020, this convergence occurs inside larger demand-driven communities rather than through intra-regional trade density. The modularity results show that dominant communities are not defined by regional interdependence, but by high-weight trade concentration. This pattern aligns with the historical position of LAC as a supplier of primary commodities embedded in global demand systems rather than in regionally integrated trade architectures (Infante-Amate et al., 2022). The country-level trajectories reinforce this structural differentiation. Chile consolidates its role as a scale-driven anchor, Peru maintains structural brokerage despite post-pandemic adjustments (Aguinaga, 2024), Mexico exhibits episodic integration consistent with its external alignment patterns (Wainer, 2023), and Brazil follows a more autonomous path shaped by diversification and strategic external positioning (Gázquez, 2023; Wainer, 2023). Brazil’s engagement in BRICS-related cooperation frameworks further supports this differentiated trajectory (Saggioro & Curty, 2023; de Tomi et al., 2023). The results therefore reveal a structural asymmetry: LAC plays a globally significant role in copper concentrate supply, yet its participation in trade communities reflects national strategies rather than coordinated regional integration. This configuration secures participation in expanding demand, but also implies exposure to shifts in dominant importing hubs. 40
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