The landmark reforms implemented during the Fujimori years (1990-2002) were based on text-book liberal economic principles: limited government intervention in the economy, macroeconomic stability, trade liberalisation, investment promotion. From then on, the fate of economic activities was firmly in private hands, national and international; in line with the constitutional mandate (1993), the State would only have a subsidiary role. During the 1990s two new gold operations commenced production: Yanacocha (1992) and Pierina (1998), exploration increased significantly, commodity prices declined (1998-2002) followed by another surge (2002-2011). The abrupt end of the Fujimori years meant not only the collapse of an authoritarian regime; it also brought about a power vacuum that was not to be fully filled in coming years. Free from the iron grip that kept them at bay for quite a long time, social forces regrouped and strived to find a place under the new circumstances. After a brief care-taking transition government, the following presidents took office: Alejandro Toledo, Alan García (second term), Ollanta Humala, Pedro Pablo Kuczinsky. During the 2000-2019 period, the country enjoyed extraordinary GDP grow rates, and poverty alleviation rates, largely uninterrupted until the arrival of COVID-19 (2020). Public policies focus shifted toward filling development gaps in poverty-stricken populations, addressing the social inequalities, while building on the economic progress Peru recently enjoyed. However, sound macroeconomic figures and international reserves do not equate to development. Deep down the social tissue, dissatisfaction boiled, triumphant announcements of the amount of money transferred to regional and local governments fell on deaf ears, inasmuch as, all that money did not change anything. It neither translated into any tangible form of progress, nor did it raise the living standards, in particular for those living close-by mining projects and operations. The antimining gospel, zealously preached by unionised school teachers since the turn of the century, meant that all over the country antimining feelings are harboured from quite a young age, both in the countryside and in the cities. Half-truths, inaccurate facts and out of context quotes are being presented as articles of faith, the modern version of the David and Goliath story, re-enacted every time a mining investment initiative is known or announced. Mining, once widely believed to be a synonym of progress became --for many-- the epitome of pollution and careless business conduct. The limited presence and capacities of all government levels, in particular in the remote areas where mining activities take place, plus the believe that authorities will always side with private interest against those of ordinary people gained ground, leading to mobilisations and protests under the banner of a newly-minted term: extractivism, an updated interpretation of the old commodity-based export-growth model. A number of narratives about the use, and 131
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