1259 5. Circularity and life-cycle trade-offs. The net benefits of different combinations of dewatering technologies, energy sources and material reuse pathways have not been systematically assessed using life cycle assessment under cold-climate conditions, especially when future energy systems and climate trajectories are taken into account. 6. Operational practices and human factors. The influence of day-to-day operational strategies, workforce training and organizational culture on maintaining moisture, compaction and drainage within the desired windows under variable weather conditions is not yet well documented or codified in design guidelines. Addressing these gaps will require coordinated efforts between universities, research institutes, industry partners and regulators, supported by long-term monitoring programs and open sharing of performance data from operating dry-stacked facilities. 6.3 Towards a scoring and decision framework To support practical decision-making, there is a growing need for tools that translate complex climatic, geotechnical and hydrological information into transparent risk indicators. Building on existing frost susceptibility and seepage risk models, one promising direction is the development of a scoring framework for dry stacking in northern conditions. Such a framework could: • Combine site characteristics (climate zone, permafrost conditions, hydrology), tailings properties (fines content, plasticity, moisture window) and design features (drainage systems, geometries, covers) into composite indices of climate sensitivity and leakage risk. • Incorporate climate scenarios and THM simulation outputs to explore how scores evolve over time and under different design or operational options. • Provide a structured basis for comparing alternatives (for example, conventional thickened tailings vs filtered dry stacking) and for communicating risk and resilience aspects to regulators and stakeholders. Developing and testing such scoring tools, grounded in monitored case studies and transparent assumptions, would greatly support the scaling-up of climate-resilient dry stacking as part of water-lean, circular mine-to-mill systems. 7. CONCLUSIONS Dry stacking of filtered tailings has emerged as a central option for reducing water use and improving tailings safety in the mining industry. In Arctic and sub-Arctic regions, where hydrological regimes are highly seasonal and climate change is progressing rapidly, the potential benefits of dry stacking, such as higher water recovery, smaller surface water bodies and improved geotechnical control, are particularly attractive. At the same time, the performance of dry stacks in these environments is tightly linked to climate-driven processes, including freeze–thaw cycles, snowmelt and extreme precipitation events, as well as to evolving permafrost conditions. This paper has provided a theoretical review of the state of practice, limitations and possibilities of dry stacking under Arctic conditions, framed within the broader vision of waterless or water-lean operations from mine to mill. Current experience shows that successful dry stacking in cold climates relies on controlling moisture content within a relatively narrow window, constructing and compacting thin lifts, and
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