1870 long-term performance in permanent applications can be limited by corrosion processes, particularly in aggressive hydrogeological environments where moisture availability and groundwater chemistry may accelerate degradation. In addition, the high density of steel (≈7.85 g/cm³) imposes handling and transport penalties that are especially relevant in constrained underground headings and remote surface installations. These constraints often translate into conservative sizing, additional protection measures, and increased lifecycle management requirements. Although fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) reinforcements are increasingly explored in infrastructure as corrosion-resistant alternatives, their translation into geotechnical anchoring remains limited by the scarcity of design-oriented quantitative benchmarks within established practice. In particular, evidence is limited on how graphene-enhanced glass fibre-reinforced polymer (GFRP) concepts compare against conventional steel tendons when assessed using acceptance indicators and sizing logic consistent with Eurocode 7 principles and regional anchoring guidance. This gap restricts the ability of practitioners to judge whether nano-enhanced composite anchors can meet stability-driven design targets while offering competitive geometric demand and operational advantages. This study addresses that gap by presenting a quantitative benchmark of graphene nanoplateletenhanced GFRP (GNP–GFRP) anchors against a reference prestressing steel system (Freyssi SIOE type) under a consistent analytical framework. Structural efficiency is assessed through global factor of safety (FS) contribution and preliminary sizing metrics, with emphasis on reductions in required cross-sectional area and equivalent diameter. The results provide a design-focused basis to evaluate mechanical feasibility and to define priorities for subsequent numerical and experimental validation, including anchor–ground interaction modelling and long-term bond–slip performance under representative stress and hydrogeochemical exposure. 2. STATE OF ART 2.1 Evolution of Ground Anchoring Systems Ground anchoring systems have played a fundamental role in the stabilization of rock and soil masses in civil, mining, and underground engineering. Their evolution is closely linked to the increasing need to control instability in progressively larger, deeper, and more complex excavations, both at the surface and underground. The earliest documented applications of rock bolting date back to the mid-19th century (1855– 1861), during the construction of the Telemark Canal in Norway, completed in 1863. These early systems consisted of short, mechanically anchored steel bars, typically with diameters of approximately 40 mm, designed primarily to stabilize individual rock blocks on steep slopes. Although rudimentary, these applications marked the first systematic attempt to reinforce rock masses through internal anchorage rather than external retaining structures (Huayta & Carrascosa, 2022). The widespread adoption of ground anchoring techniques occurred in the early 20th century, driven mainly by underground mining. In 1927, mechanical rock bolts were introduced in underground mines in the United States, and in 1947 the U.S. Bureau of Mines formally incorporated rock bolting into mine safety practices to mitigate roof-fall hazards. This institutional endorsement led to a dramatic reduction in fatal accidents and, within five years, annual rock bolt consumption exceeded 25 million units, consolidating anchoring systems as the dominant underground support method. Parallel advances took place in civil engineering, particularly in large hydraulic and transportation projects. A major milestone was the application of prestressed anchoring systems by Eugène Freyssinet in 1939 for the stabilization of the Beni-Bahdel dam in Algeria. Between 1930 and 1960, anchored systems expanded rapidly across Europe, supported by extensive field experience, long-term monitoring programs, and the need to construct infrastructure under constrained urban and geological conditions. During this period, Europe became a global reference in anchored retaining systems, especially for deep excavations, slopes, and dam foundations.
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