1871 From the late 1970s onward, ground anchoring evolved from predominantly temporary solutions to fully engineered permanent systems. In the United States, the Federal Highway Administration promoted the development of standardized design methodologies, acceptance testing procedures, and durability requirements, enabling the routine use of permanent anchors in transportation infrastructure. Similar regulatory frameworks emerged across Europe, incorporating explicit provisions for corrosion protection, grouting techniques, load transfer mechanisms, and long-term performance verification. In the period 2000–2020, the evolution of anchoring systems has been strongly influenced by advances in materials science, numerical modeling, and monitoring technologies. While conventional steel anchors remain widely used, their long-term performance is often limited by corrosion susceptibility, maintenance requirements, and durability concerns in aggressive environments. These limitations have driven research toward advanced anchoring concepts, including composite-based reinforcements, high-performance coatings, and smart monitoring systems. Recent studies highlight the potential of fiber-reinforced polymers, graphene-enhanced composites, and data-driven design methodologies to improve durability, sustainability, and structural efficiency, marking the transition toward a new generation of ground anchoring systems aligned with the principles of Geotechnical Engineering 4.0. Figure 1 – Timeline of key milestones in ground anchoring systems (1855-Present). 2.2 Classification of Ground Anchors Ground anchoring systems may be classified according to their field of application, as the mechanical role, design objectives, and performance requirements differ significantly between surface and underground environments. Although similar anchoring elements may be used in both contexts, their function within the ground–structure interaction system is fundamentally different. For this reason, ground anchors are herein classified into surface anchoring systems and underground anchoring systems. 2.2.1 Ground Anchors for Surface Applications In surface engineering, including slopes, open-pit mines, retaining structures, and deep excavations, ground anchors are primarily used to enhance global stability and control potential large-scale failure mechanisms. They commonly operate as active systems, where prestressing is applied during installation to provide an immediate stabilizing action and to limit displacements. Surface anchors are typically classified as temporary or permanent, depending on the required service life. Temporary systems are generally associated with staged construction and excavation works, whereas permanent anchors require explicit durability provisions, including corrosion protection and long-
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