372 climates are in the range of approximately 8–12 % (Davies & Rice, 2001; Tuomela, 2022; GTK, 2021). This range represents a compromise between workability and stability: it allows sufficient compaction and trafficability, while keeping frost susceptibility at manageable levels. Moisture contents significantly above this window can lead to reduced strength, higher susceptibility to frost heave and challenges in achieving the desired density, whereas overly dry materials may be difficult to compact uniformly and more prone to dust generation. • Layer thickness: Layered construction with typical layer thicknesses of 20–40 cm supports uniform compaction and facilitates quality control. Thinner lifts may improve compaction and drainage but increase operational complexity, while thicker lifts can compromise density and lead to heterogeneous moisture conditions, particularly under cold and wet weather. • Fines content and particle size distribution: Fines content in the order of 5– 20 % is often cited as favorable for balancing moisture retention, compactability and permeability (Lottermoser, 2010; GTK, 2021). Too few fines can produce coarse, free-draining material that may be difficult to compact and more sensitive to erosion, whereas very high fines contents can increase water retention, slow drainage and amplify frost susceptibility. The detailed particle size distribution and mineralogy therefore need to be evaluated for each site. • Stack geometry and foundation conditions: Overall stack height, slope angles and benching arrangements influence both global stability and surface water management. In Arctic conditions, gentler slopes and well-defined benches are often preferred to control run-off and reduce erosion, while foundation materials and any basal sealing systems must be designed to withstand frost action and prevent leakage under changing climatic loads. Table 2 – Dry Stacking Design Principles Parameter Typical Target Level Significance Fines Content 5 – 20 % Influences moisture retention and compactability Moisture Range 8 – 12 % Critical for density and stability Layer Thickness 20 – 40 cm Allows uniform compaction Climate Load Arctic / Subarctic Defines intensity of frost and thaw cycles Geometry Controlled Stability and water
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