374 Dust Control Dry materials are prone to wind erosion, a significant challenge in open northern environments. Together, the factors listed in Table 3 highlight that dry stack stability in cold climates is not controlled by a single variable, but by the combined effects of moisture, compaction, drainage conditions and climate-driven processes. Each factor must be managed within an appropriate operating window, and small deviations can interact in non-linear ways over time. The most critical aspects are discussed in more detail below. • Moisture and compaction: Moisture content and compaction are primary controls on density, strength and frost susceptibility. High compaction levels help maintain material strength and limit long-term settlement, while appropriate moisture reduces the risk of ice lens formation and differential heave. Achieving these targets in practice requires continuous monitoring of tailings moisture at the filter, on the stack and during compaction, as well as flexible operating procedures to adjust deposition when weather conditions change. • Water management: Effective water management is essential, particularly during snowmelt and heavy rainfall events. Surface drainage structures, internal drainage layers and diversion channels must be designed to prevent ponding, minimize infiltration into the stack and avoid local increases in pore pressure. In Arctic settings, the timing and intensity of meltwater peaks can be highly variable, making it necessary to account for extreme scenarios and climate change projections in the design of drainage capacity. • Freeze–thaw processes: Repeated freeze–thaw cycles can gradually alter pore structure, permeability and strength, especially in fine-grained or partially saturated materials. Laboratory and field studies have shown that freezing can cause redistribution of moisture and development of microcracks, while thawing may lead to softening and increased deformation under load. The net effect on stability depends on material properties, moisture history, compaction level and drainage conditions, highlighting the need for long-term monitoring and modeling of freeze–thaw behavior. • Dust and erosion control: Dry materials are susceptible to wind erosion and dust generation, which can have environmental and occupational health impacts. In exposed northern environments, wind speeds and the lack of vegetation may exacerbate dust issues, requiring surface treatments, temporary covers or progressive reclamation to protect tailings surfaces. Erosion by wind and water can also affect local slope stability and drainage patterns if not managed
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