The earliest documented applications of rock bolting date back to the mid-19th century (1855–1861), during the construction of the Telemark Canal in Norway, completed in 1863. These early systems consisted of short, mechanically anchored steel bars, typically with diameters of approximately 40 mm, designed primarily to stabilize individual rock blocks on steep slopes. Although rudimentary, these applications marked the first systematic attempt to reinforce rock masses through internal anchorage rather than external retaining structures (Huayta & Carrascosa, 2022). The widespread adoption of ground anchoring techniques occurred in the early 20th century, driven mainly by underground mining. In 1927, mechanical rock bolts were introduced in underground mines in the United States, and in 1947 the U.S. Bureau of Mines formally incorporated rock bolting into mine safety practices to mitigate roof-fall hazards. This institutional endorsement led to a dramatic reduction in fatal accidents and, within five years, annual rock bolt consumption exceeded 25 million units, consolidating anchoring systems as the dominant underground support method. Parallel advances took place in civil engineering, particularly in large hydraulic and transportation projects. A major milestone was the application of prestressed anchoring systems by Eugène Freyssinet in 1939 for the stabilization of the Beni-Bahdel dam in Algeria. Between 1930 and 1960, anchored systems expanded rapidly across Europe, supported by extensive field experience, long-term monitoring programs, and the need to construct infrastructure under constrained urban and geological conditions. During this period, Europe became a global reference in anchored retaining systems, especially for deep excavations, slopes, and dam foundations. From the late 1970s onward, ground anchoring evolved from predominantly temporary solutions to fully engineered permanent systems. In the United States, the Federal Highway Administration promoted the development of standardized design methodologies, acceptance testing procedures, and durability requirements, enabling the routine use of permanent anchors in transportation infrastructure. Similar regulatory frameworks emerged across Europe, incorporating explicit provisions for corrosion protection, grouting techniques, load transfer mechanisms, and long-term performance verification. In the period 2000–2020, the evolution of anchoring systems has been strongly influenced by advances in materials science, numerical modeling, and monitoring technologies. While conventional steel anchors remain widely used, their long-term performance is often limited by corrosion susceptibility, maintenance requirements, and durability concerns in aggressive environments. These limitations have driven research toward advanced anchoring concepts, including composite-based reinforcements, highperformance coatings, and smart monitoring systems. Recent studies highlight the potential of fiber-reinforced polymers, graphene-enhanced composites, and data-driven design methodologies to improve durability, sustainability, and structural efficiency, marking the transition toward a new generation of ground anchoring systems aligned with the principles of Geotechnical Engineering 4.0.
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