Figure 1 – Timeline of key milestones in ground anchoring systems (1855-Present). 2.2 Classification of Ground Anchors Ground anchoring systems may be classified according to their field of application, as the mechanical role, design objectives, and performance requirements differ significantly between surface and underground environments. Although similar anchoring elements may be used in both contexts, their function within the ground–structure interaction system is fundamentally different. For this reason, ground anchors are herein classified into surface anchoring systems and underground anchoring systems. 2.2.1 Ground Anchors for Surface Applications In surface engineering, including slopes, open-pit mines, retaining structures, and deep excavations, ground anchors are primarily used to enhance global stability and control potential large-scale failure mechanisms. They commonly operate as active systems, where prestressing is applied during installation to provide an immediate stabilizing action and to limit displacements. Surface anchors are typically classified as temporary or permanent, depending on the required service life. Temporary systems are generally associated with staged construction and excavation works, whereas permanent anchors require explicit durability provisions, including corrosion protection and long-term load retention, particularly under aggressive environmental exposure. Common configurations include bar anchors, strand (cable) anchors, and self-drilling anchors, selected according to load demand, ground conditions, and installation constraints. Load transfer in surface anchoring is generally achieved through a bonded grouted length, where axial force is transmitted to the ground via shear mobilization along the grout–ground interface. The governing design intent is to stabilize potential failure surfaces and control face deformations within acceptable operational limits. 2.2.2 Ground Anchors for Underground Applications In underground excavations such as tunnels, shafts, and caverns, anchoring
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