elements function predominantly as reinforcement components within a broader ground support system. In contrast to typical surface applications, underground anchors often mobilize resistance progressively as the rock mass deforms and stresses redistribute around the excavation boundary. This progressive response is characteristic of passive systems, although prestressing may be adopted in cases requiring enhanced confinement or strict deformation control. Common underground systems include rock bolts, cable bolts, and self-drilling anchors, frequently used together with shotcrete and other support elements. Their performance is governed by anchor–rock mass–boundary interaction mechanisms that control deformation, confinement development, and load redistribution. Installation conditions and long-term durability are particularly critical underground, where high humidity, groundwater chemistry, and complex stress paths may accelerate deterioration mechanisms and affect long-term support capacity. Figure 2 – Conceptual load-transfer and role of anchors in surface vs underground settings. 2.3 Design Implications for Advanced Materials and Numerical Modelling The surface–underground distinction has direct implications for both material selection and modelling strategy. In surface applications, performance is often evaluated through global stability, axial demand, and load transfer efficiency, providing a robust benchmark for quantifying the structural efficiency of alternative reinforcement materials through numerical modelling. In underground excavations, anchors operate within a coupled support system where confinement development, interaction with other support elements, and long-term durability frequently govern performance, thereby amplifying the limitations of conventional steel systems, particularly corrosion susceptibility and maintenance demands. This classification framework therefore motivates the material and modelling choices adopted in this study. The following sections introduce the rationale for advanced reinforcement materials and present the numerical approach used to assess their performance, with quantitative analyses developed for surface slope conditions and underground implications discussed in terms of applicability.
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