Figure 1 – Structure of the proposed framework Pillar 1: Resource Allocation Land Allocation The method adopted for land allocation for mining and processing is a leading cause of conflict in India. The Land Conflict Watch has reported that, as of December 2025, 45 ongoing conflicts in the non-fuels minerals sector in India are due to land disputes between communities and companies. Such conflicts have affected 347,184 people across the country for mining projects with a total investment of INR 69,496 crore ($7.6 billion). Discrepancies in land records, limited digitisation, and information asymmetry within affected communities have led to a rise in land-related conflicts in mining regions. Mining leases have been allocated on lands where communities have been living for decades, but, due to the absence of land records, they are not eligible for rehabilitation benefits, leading to the declaration of such settlements as illegal encroachments. Free, Prior and Informed Consent FPIC requires that Indigenous and forest-dependent/dwelling communities be consulted freely before project approvals, and that approvals be based on complete, intelligible information, with the provision to withhold consent. The landmark case of Vedanta-Niyamgiri conflict in Odisha had a progressive chain of escalations, inciting institutional responses that began with media coverage and active civil society investigations exposing procedural and environmental violations and the coercion of consent from the affected Gram Sabhas. The Supreme Court held that the Gram Sabha has sole authority over forest and religious rights and mandated fresh Gram Sabha consultations in the form of a referendum among the 12 affected villages (Orissa Mining 149
RkJQdWJsaXNoZXIy MTM0Mzk2