Corporation Ltd. v Ministry of Environment & Forests & Others, 2013). The referendum resulted in the 12 villages unanimously rejecting the mining proposal. Field studies and stakeholder interviews in Odisha and Rajasthan revealed procedural irregularities in the consent process, in which Gram Sabhas continue to grant consent for large mining projects without consulting communities. Rehabilitation LARRA 2013 mandates fair compensation, resettlement, and rehabilitation (R&R) for families affected by public-purpose projects. When the government acquires land, it stipulates prior consent from at least 80% of affected families for private projects and 70% for projects under public–private partnerships. LARRA further strengthens the role of the gram sabha by mandating that social impact assessments be conducted in consultation with it. For land acquisition directly by private companies, only provisions relating to rehabilitation and resettlement apply. Across the country, recognition of individual forest rights (IFR) has seen some progress. However, negligible recognition of community forest rights (CFR) has led to forest degradation that would otherwise have been avoided under community-led forest governance (Panda, 2025) On the other hand, due to the non-recognition of CFR, communities not only feel threatened by the possibility of being evicted from their own lands by both developmental and conservation efforts but also lose their traditional rights over forests and livelihoods that would otherwise be legally protected. Without recognised titles or 'pattas', forest dwellers are still treated as "encroachers," weakening their entitlement to relocation, rehabilitation, and compensation under LARRA. Pillar 2: Environmental Sustainability Air Pollution Mining activities, mineral ore transport, and emissions processing plants contribute directly to air pollution, affecting communities and local ecosystems. Odisha is the largest producer of Iron ore in India, producing 149 million tonnes in 2023-24. (Indian Bureau of Mines, 2024). The leading iron ore mining region in Odisha is Joda-Barbil, located in Keonjhar district. The authors visited several mining sites in the Joda-Barbil region and interacted with community members and government officials. One of the most striking concerns identified was air pollution caused by the constant movement of uncovered trucks on public roads and national highways (Basu, 2024). The red iron ore dust covers trees, roads and houses, mixing with water bodies during rains, resulting in harsh living conditions for communities and workers. Strict adherence to government norms for road transport of ore is essential to reduce air pollution and its associated impacts in the region. Water Contamination Underground water tables are depleting and have not been prioritised in mining-affected regions, leading to reduced crop yields and increased salinity in drinking water. Mining and processing activities directly impact both surface and underground water resources through effluent 150
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